Language
Language is central to cultural identity. It is the code containing the subtleties and secrets of cultural life. In many ways, language determines thought.
- W. Richard West, Jr., founding director of the National Museum of the American Indian and member of the Southern Cheyenne Tribe of Oklahoma.
For fifty years, language revitalization and preservation have been fundamental elements of strengthening a Native community’s culture. Native languages build identity and promote social unity and self-sufficiency.
Some of the most disastrous federal policies toward Native American peoples resulted in the loss of Native languages, including boarding school policies that prohibited their use. In 1990, through Native-led advocacy to reclaim their languages, Congress enacted the Native American Languages Act (Public Laws 101-477 and 102-524). Subsequently, Congress passed the Esther Martinez Native American Languages Preservation Act of 2006 (Public Law 109-394) to provide funding for Native language immersion and restoration programs.
ANA language grants provide Native communities opportunities to assess, plan, develop and implement projects to ensure the continuing vitality of their languages. We encourage language applicants to involve elders and language speakers to help determine project goals and implement project activities. ANA provides funding for two Native languages programs:
On January 5, 2023, the Durbin Feeling Native American Languages Act became law. The purpose of this legislation is to improve interagency efforts to support Native American language reclamation efforts, reduce inefficiencies and duplications that impede on Indigenous communities, and outline the status of the vitality of Native American languages. ANA will help realize this collaborative vision, while aligning its efforts with the Federal Government’s 10-Year National Plan on Native Language Revitalization. It will seek to revitalize, protect, preserve, and reclaim Native Languages, in line with the following pillars: Awareness; Recognition / Affirmation; Integration; and Support.
The Beginning
The seed for ANA’s genesis was planted in January 1964 when President Lyndon B. Johnson declared the War on Poverty. At that time, the national poverty rate was around nineteen percent and President Johnson gave a full-throttle call to action: “Our aim is not only to relieve the symptom of poverty, but to cure it and, above all, to prevent it.” Eight months later, President Johnson signed the Economic Opportunity Act was signed into law, creating the Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO) and launching several programs aimed at eliminating poverty by improving living conditions for residents of low-income neighborhoods and by helping the poor access economic opportunities long denied from them.
Missing from this collective action, however, was a program focused on the historical plight and poverty of Native communities. Throughout the 1960s, American Indians were the nation’s poorest population group and suffered the worst disparities in every socioeconomic measure. In 1970, the unemployment rate for Native people was 10 times the national average, and 40 percent of the Native population lived below the poverty line.
In July of 1970, a palpable shift was felt when President Richard Nixon stated to Congress [i] :
It is long-past time that the Indian policies of the Federal government began to recognize and build upon the capacities and insights of the Indian people. Both as a matter of Justice, and as a matter of enlightened social policy, we must begin to act on the basis of what the Indians themselves have long been telling us. The time has come to break decisively with the past, and to create the conditions for a new era in which the Indian future is determined by Indian acts and Indian decisions.[ii]
The Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975
In 1974, through the strong advocacy of tribal leaders and Native American activists, Indian Country and Native communities finally came to the forefront of Congress’s attention.
The Native American Programs Act of 1974 (NAPA) embraced the ideals of President Johnson’s War on Poverty and recognized the value of tribal self-determination. The NAPA established the Administration of Native Americans (ANA) to promote tribal self-determination, social well-being, and economic development throughout Native communities, including Native American and Alaska Native tribes, Native Hawaiians, and Indigenous Pacific Islanders.
A year later, Congress enacted the Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975, which paved the way to greater autonomy and tribal responsibility for programs and services administered to them. This meant greater authority over Tribal governmental services and programs, authority to make decisions, control funds and allocate resources where needed. The codification of self-determination and transfer of federal funds to tribes further reinforced tribal sovereignty and self-governance.
Fifty years later, ANA is still guided by the same goals:
- Fostering the development of stable diversified local economies and economic activities to provide jobs, promote community and economic well-being, encourage community partnerships, and reduce dependency on public funds and social services.
- Supporting local access to, control of, and coordination of services and programs that safeguard the health and well-being of native children and families.
- Increasing the number of projects involving youth and intergenerational activities in Native American communities.
Self-Determination Today
In January 2021, President Joe Biden reaffirmed the federal government’s commitment to tribal self-determination. In his Memorandum on Tribal Consultation and Strengthening Nation-to-Nation Relationships, President Biden affirms:
It is a priority of my Administration to make respect for Tribal sovereignty and self-governance, commitment to fulfilling Federal trust and treaty responsibilities to Tribal Nations, and regular, meaningful, and robust consultation with Tribal Nations cornerstones of Federal Indian policy… History demonstrates that we best serve Native American people when Tribal governments are empowered to lead their communities, and when Federal officials speak with and listen to Tribal leaders in formulating Federal policy that affects Tribal Nations.[i]
Executive Order 14112
For fifty years, ANA has been guided by that same vision, promoting self-sufficiency through discretionary grant funding for community-based projects and training and technical assistance to eligible tribes and native organizations. We believe community members are at the heart of sustainable, positive change and that native self-sufficiency is based on the following core beliefs:
- A native community is self-sufficient when it can generate and control the resources necessary to meet its social and economic goals and the needs of its members.
- The responsibility for achieving self-sufficiency resides with native governing bodies and local leadership.
- Progress toward self-sufficiency is based on efforts to plan and direct resources in a comprehensive manner consistent with long-range goals.
Our reach is vast, our impacts last, and we look forward to serving Native communities for the next 50 years.
Spotlight | John Echohawk
ANA grantee and community partner, the Native American Rights Fund ( NARF), had a significant role in the self-determination movement in the 1970s. Throughout our 50th Anniversary, ANA honors these tribal leaders and advocates, such as NARF’s executive director John Echohawk. For over 50 years, longer than ANA, John has been the leading proponent of protecting tribal rights, resources, and lifeways.
John’s illustrious career began when he graduated from the University of New Mexico School of Law in 1969, the first Native person to do so. A year later he helped found NARF to provide critical legal assistance to tribes and individuals and secure treaty rights, rights to water, and hunting and fishing, religious freedom, child welfare protections, and voting rights.[ii]
ANA Commissioner Patrice Kunesh recently reached out to Mr. Echohawk to get his reflections on his legacy at NARF and the next era of tribal self-determination.
Question #1 — What do you think was the animating driver of this momentous era for Native rights and advocacy, commonly called the self-determination era?
Answer — The animating driver of this momentous era for Native rights and advocacy, commonly called the self-determination era, was the civil rights movement of the 1960s by Black Americans. They wanted their equal rights under the Constitution and laws of this country and Native Americans wanted their treaty rights under the Constitution and laws of this country.
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Question #2 — What is the legacy of self-determination?
Answer — The legacy of self-determination is the recognition of treaty rights and tribal sovereignty by President Nixon in 1970 that continues to be America's Native American policy today 54 years later.
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Question #3 — What are the next steps for self-determination and self-governance?
Answer — The next steps for self-determination and self-governance are to continue to exercise that tribal sovereignty that has greatly improved Native American social and economic conditions in this country.
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Question #4 — How do you envision the course of federal Indian law and policy for the next decade and beyond?
Answer — I envision the course of federal Indian law and policy for the next decade and beyond to be to continue to assert and protect our tribal sovereignty against those forces in this country that continue to try to diminish and take away our tribal sovereignty.
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ANA is incredibly proud to be part of NARF’s legendary success. We invite you to learn more about the highlights of this history in Commissioner Kunesh’s interview with John Echohawk below.
ANA’s Contributions
Spotlight #1: Santa Clara Pueblo
Santa Clara Pueblo is known as “Singing Water Village” or the “Village of Wild Roses” and is found in Rio Arriba County, New Mexico. It is part of the Eight Northern Pueblos, and the people are from the Tewa ethnic group of Native Americans, speaking the Rio Grande Tewa language. The pueblo is on the Rio Grande, between Ohkay Owingeh to the north and San Ildefonso Pueblo to the south. It is known for producing hand-crafted pottery, specifically blackware and redware with deep engravings. Santa Clara Pueblo is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
The Tewa language written down for the first time in the 1960s. Two decades later, census figures counted almost 1,300 speakers, most of whom were bilingual in English. The Endangered Languages Project later estimated a total of 1,500 speakers worldwide, with 1,200 residing in New Mexico’s pueblos and 300 in the Arizona village of Hano. Today, few are fluent. In 2012, Tewa was defined as “severely endangered” by UNESCO.
The following video underscores the importance of tribal language preservation and speaks to the socio-historical mandate facing Indigenous communities across the country. It is a race against time, as tribal elders are both knowledge AND language keepers.
ANA will meet this cultural challenge by continuing its investments in Native languages.
Spotlight #2: A Message from Santa Clara Pueblo’s Governor
The impending 50th Anniversary of the Administration for Native Americans (ANA) in 2024 provides us with a profound opportunity to reflect on the vital importance of Native languages and the current state of preservation efforts across the United States. Native languages are the bedrock of Indigenous cultures, serving as vessels of ancestral knowledge, identity, and spiritual connection. Preserving and revitalizing these languages is not just an educational endeavor; it is an act of cultural preservation and sovereignty.
Native languages are far more than just a means of communication. They encapsulate the history, worldview, and wisdom of Indigenous peoples, passed down through generations. When a language is lost, a unique cultural lens through which to view the world is extinguished. This loss is immeasurable, impacting not only Indigenous communities but society at large, as it diminishes our collective human heritage.
The state of preservation efforts across the country is a mixed bag. While there have been significant strides made in recent years to support Native language revitalization, many Indigenous languages remain endangered. Organizations like the ANA have played a crucial role in funding language preservation programs, but the challenges are vast. These challenges include limited resources, the need for qualified language teachers and speakers, and the intergenerational trauma stemming from historical attempts to suppress Native languages.
To truly honor the 50th Anniversary of the ANA, we must redouble our efforts to support Native language preservation. This includes increased funding for language programs, the development of immersive language education strategies, and collaboration with Indigenous communities to ensure their unique needs and perspectives are at the forefront of preservation initiatives. The resilience of Native languages is a testament to the enduring strength of Indigenous cultures, and as co-chair of the National Congress of American Indians Native Language Task Force, I am committed to ensuring that these languages not only survive but thrive for the next 50 years and beyond.
Remembering Past Community Partners | Prairie Island Indian Community (MN) By Heather Westra
The Prairie Island Indian Community (Tribe), a Mdewakanton Dakota in southeastern Minnesota, is a federally recognized tribe whose reservation is located on an island -- Prairie Island -- in the Mississippi River. The Tribe was an early recipient of the Administration for Native American’s (ANA) environmental grant program. The funds came to the Tribe at a time when financial resources were scarce, and when the Tribe had no other way to begin to evaluate and document the very real damage caused by the construction and operation of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers’ Lock and Dam No. 3 on the Mississippi River.
Construction of the dam in the 1930s destroyed sacred and culturally significant sites, and its operation has forever altered the environment, culture, economy, and lifestyle of the Tribe. While the dam was constructed to improve navigation and flood control for non-Native interests and landowners, its operation has directly contributed to the nearly annual flooding of the Tribe’s reservation, disrupting Tribal activities, and displacing Tribal members. Over the last thirty years alone, the Tribe has suffered four “major” flood events (the most serious category of flood events as defined by the National Weather Service), as well as a host of other damaging flood events.
Compounding the injury to the Tribe was the construction of an impound area behind the dam to provide a steady source of water critical to the Prairie Island Nuclear Generating Plant (PINGP) only 700 yards away from the Tribe’s reservation. In the late 1950s, Northern States Power company (NSP) purchased the land for a “steam” plant, but by the mid-1960s it became clear that a nuclear plant would be built on that land. The nearby City of Red Wing had lobbied heavily for the plant to increase its tax base and bring in hundreds of good paying jobs. However, no thought whatsoever was given to the impact of the nuclear power plant on the Tribe and its reservation. Moreover, the Department of the Interior’s Bureau of Indian Affairs, which had a trust responsibility to protect the Tribe’s land, failed to raise any concern about the project on the Tribe’s behalf.
Operating since 1973, the PINGP is one of the oldest nuclear power plants in the United States, and it likely will continue to operate at least until 2054. Every year the PINGP generates contaminated waste in the form of spent nuclear fuel. As a result, tons of spent fuel are piling up on-site at Prairie Island just 700 yards from the Tribe’s reservation. When the PINGP is eventually decommissioned, estimates are that over 4.2 million pounds of spent nuclear fuel will be stored on Prairie Island, again, right next to the Prairie Island Indian Community. Without the construction of Lock and Dam No. 3, the PINGP could not have been built on Prairie Island. Without the construction of the PINGP, there would not be tons of spent nuclear fuel sitting right next to a federally recognized Indian tribe and its members.
The United States Congress has recognized that some actions of the Department of Defense (including the US Army Corps of Engineers) have imposed environmental impacts on Indian tribes and Alaska Native villages, and that these impacts have negatively impacted the health, safety, and social and economic welfare of tribes and their people. To help address these impacts, in 1993, Congress enacted Public Law 103-139, which authorized the use of Defense appropriations to fund a grant program to assist tribes and Alaska Native villages plan, develop and implement programs for the mitigation of such impacts. This grant program, called the Environmental Mitigation (now called the Environmental Enhancement grant), was administered by ANA at the Department of Health and Human Services.
With the ANA Environmental Mitigation funding, the Tribe was able to hire environmental scientists, biologists, economists, and Geographic Information System (GIS) specialists to evaluate, quantify and map land losses, natural resource losses, cultural impacts and economic impacts from the construction and operation of Lock and Dam No. 3. Among other things, the funding allowed the Tribe to document the loss of approximately 70 acres when the Army Corps of Engineers constructed the Dam — a significant amount of acreage given that the Tribe’s reservation was only 120 acres at that time.
Ultimately, ANA’s funding has helped the Tribe better understand and document the degree to which the damage on Prairie Island cannot reasonably be mitigated. In turn, this understanding has allowed the Tribe to plan for a safer, more secure future. For example, the Tribe purchased land away from Prairie Island and has requested land be place into trust status so that tribal members have a reasonably safe place to live and raise their families.
The Tribe is very grateful to ANA for its funding and the establishment of its environmental protection program. It also is the Tribe’s great hope that the Bureau of Indian Affairs will be its partner in its efforts to secure a brighter, safer future for its people.
The Lac Courte Oreilles Tribe: Waadookodaading Ojibwe Language Institute
A Brief History of the Waadookodaading Ojibwe Language Institute
The Waadookodaading Ojibwe Language Institute (WOLI) was established in 2000. Previously, WOLI was called “Waadookodaading,Helping One Another.” WOLI exists to strengthen the Anishinaabe people through the revitalization of Ojibwe language, culture, and philosophy by promoting and sustaining the active use of Ojibwe language through a multi-faceted organizational structure and approach.
Ojibwemowin (the Ojibwe Language) is the primary Indigenous language of a vast geographical area within both the United States and Canada, consisting of several localized bands and language dialects. The Waadookodaading Ojibwe Language Institute (WOLI), located on the Lac Courte Oreilles (LCO) Ojibwe Reservation near Hayward, Wisconsin, is at the heart of the Ojibwe language revitalization movement in the United States. LCO, one of several bands located in the south-central area of Ojibwe territory, has been the home of WOLI for 25 years.
Funding from the Administration for Native Americans (ANA) initially helped WOLI develop an Ojibwe-medium school. Continued ANA awards to WOLI over the years have played an essential role in expanding WOLI to a multifaceted Indigenous language-focused organization engaged in regional and national collaborative efforts to affect long-term and widespread change for the well-being of all Indigenous languages of the United States.
WOLI began with a group of LCO community members sharing their concerns about decreasing use of the Ojibwe language. LCO tribal members, Keller Paap and Lisa LaRonge met while studying at the University of Minnesota Twin Cities. Both Paap and LaRonge had taken Ojibwe language courses and then created immersion opportunities for themselves by spending time visiting first-speaker elders in their homes and learning seasonal food gatherings, and cultural practices alongside these mentors.
In the course of this work, Paap began work on an ANA grant at LCO. The project focused on meeting with speakers and collecting information about the status of the Ojibwe language in the community, as well as the original place names of areas on and surrounding the reservation. The first speakers spoken to were pleasantly surprised, not only to hear young people speaking Ojibwe but to have the capacity for a real conversation with a young speaker. Paap and LaRonge became energized by these interactions and asked what could be done to create more speakers. They began a series of meetings with interested elders and community members to explore language revitalization efforts occurring in other communities. The two visited the Blackfeet Nation of Montana, New Zealand, and Hawai’i, and connected with the University of Minnesota Center for Advanced Research in Language Acquisition, exploring the current research to learn best practices in language teaching and learning.
From 2000 to 2014, the school was authorized as a Wisconsin public charter school within the Hayward Community School District, but in 2014 became a Bureau of Indian Education (BIE)-status school program through a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) between WOLI and the Lac Courte Oreilles Band of Lake Superior Ojibwe. This unique binding agreement granted WOLI autonomy and the sovereign educational authority of the LCO band to implement a K-12 Ojibwe-medium education school model at the LCO Ojibwe School.
- Serves students (K-9) from Lac Courte Oreilles, Bad River, Red Cliff, Lac du Flambeau, St. Croix, and the Minnesota Chippewa Tribe.
- Standards and curriculum are based on Anishinaabe lifeways, philosophies, and epistemologies, developed to meet or exceed Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction standards.
- Academic content is delivered in Ojibwe except for English Language Arts, which begins in grade 4.
Students are assessed for Ojibwe language proficiency using a scale modeled upon the Center for Applied Linguistics/American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (CAL/ACTFL). The scale, for both adults and children, assesses proficiency in oral fluency, grammar, vocabulary, and listening comprehension. They achieve high levels of proficiency by middle school, demonstrating that long-term commitment is crucial to the success of language learners.
In 2015, the WOLI board changed the organizational structure to better reflect the work encompassing broader goals of making more Ojibwe language speakers, focused on these four activities shown in the image beside.
Future
Looking ahead in the next ten years, continued support is vital to ensure the vitality of all Indigenous languages . Expanding ANA funding for language revitalization must be a top priority to effectively support Indigenous language efforts, schools, and programs that establish, transfer, and increase more widespread advanced-level language proficiency and use in all community domains.
WOLI firmly believes in seeking additional and continued ANA funding to support the implementation of a birth-to-graduate level Indigenous medium language program as well as to continue to participate fully in regional and national efforts that seek to initiate and perpetuate growth and change for the betterment of all Indigenous languages and communities.
Native Code Talkers
ANA celebrates its investments in Native languages and their vital role in preserving Native culture, identity, and lifeways. The value of Native languages transcends reservation boundaries--it binds together community members and social customs.
Native languages also have served strategic national interests. For example, during World Wars I and II, hundreds of Native servicemen from more than twenty tribes used their Native languages to send secret, coded messages that enemy forces could never break. Known as code talkers, these Native men helped U.S. forces achieve military victory in some of the greatest battles of the twentieth century.
As shared by the National WWII Museum in New Orleans:
The idea of using American Indians who were fluent in both their traditional tribal language and in English to send secret messages in battle was first put to the test in World War I with the Choctaw Telephone Squad and other Native communications experts and messengers. However, it wasn’t until World War II that the U.S. military developed a specific policy to recruit and train American Indian speakers to become code talkers.
Perhaps the most well-known code talkers were the Navajo, or Diné, who were instrumental in the Pacific theater of War II. In fact, during World War I, Choctaw language speakers, Ho-Chunks, Eastern Cherokees, Comanches, Cheyennes, Yankton Sioux, and Osages also served as code talkers.
The National Museum of the American Indian pays high tribute to the Native code talkers and other Native heroes. The National Native American Veterans Memorial is a testament to the national scale of the enduring and distinguished service of Native Americans in every branch of the US military.
Here are some of those tribal heroes.
| Chester Nez, Navajo Code Talker
“This major took us into a great big room and he said, “you guys are going to have to make up a code in your own native language,” that’s all he said. He left, closed the door behind him and locked the door. We didn’t know what to think, you know? What does he mean by making a code in our own language? We sat there for about three or four minutes thinking, how are we going to develop this code?” |
| John Brown Jr., Navajo Code Talker
“It became serious when we started to develop that code. You know, they wouldn’t let anybody in there. They kind of shut us out, secretly you know. Trying to talk about it back and forth. And there’s lots of guards around.” |
| Carl Gorman was a Navajo Code Talker in World War II. Mr. Gorman grew up on the Navajo reservation in Arizona and served in the United States Marine Corps in the war against Japan. |
| Charles Chibitty was a Comanche Code Talker in World War II. Mr. Chibitty was from a Comanche community in Oklahoma and served in the United States Army in the war against Germany. |
Economic Development
“The past three decades have seen American Indians and Alaskan Natives—collectively referred to as Native Americans here—make the first widespread economic gains since their territories were incorporated within the United States. This unprecedented growth correlates strongly with increased tribal autonomy and is not primarily due to the growth of tribal casinos.” Jeff R. Keohane (2006)
While ANA celebrates its 50th Anniversary, we also will highlight the integral role of tribal self-determination in the enactment of the Native American Programs Act of 1974 (NAPA) and on tribal social and economic development. NAPA mandated that ANA foster tribal economies and invest in projects that spur employment, promote community and economic well-being, and encourage community partnerships.
ANA’s largest grant program, Social and Economic Development Strategy (SEDS), support community-driven projects, promote business development, and build tribal capacity and infrastructure.
The early years of implementing the tribal self-determination policy resulted in increased funding directly to tribes. ANA’s contributions during this time period were modest, but significant according to Keohane.
Tribes experienced the beneficial economic effects of increased appropriations and the Self-Determination Act almost immediately. Per capita income on reservations rose from $4,300 in 1970 to $6,500 in 1980 (in year-2000 dollars), and poverty fell from 57 percent of families to 43 percent.
This approach recognizes that when tribes make their own decisions about funding and community investments, they consistently outperform external decision-makers—on matters as diverse as governmental form, natural resource management, economic development, health care, and social service provision.
Recently President Joe Biden issued a Memorandum on Tribal Consultation and Strengthening Nation-to-Nation Relationships , which reinvigorates the policy of tribal self-determination and empowerment:
History demonstrates that we best serve Native American people when Tribal governments are empowered to lead their communities, and when Federal officials speak with and listen to Tribal leaders in formulating Federal policy that affects Tribal Nations.
The Harvard Project on Indigenous Governance and Development (PDF) sums up the impact of self-determination this way:
The results have been (1) remarkable economic growth across most of Indian Country, and (2) concomitant expansions of the responsibilities and capacities of tribal governments. Hundreds of tribes across the other Lower 48 states now routinely serve their citizens with the full array of governmental functions and services that we expect from non-Indian state and local governments in the US, and increasing numbers of tribes are the economic engines of their regions.
ANA is proud to continue its support of tribal self-determination and economic development. Our SEDS portfolio remains a pillar in our mission to empower Native American communities. A few reflections from former Community Partners attest to this impact:
Organized Village of Kake
“Now that tribal community members have seen the success of this project, interest in creating and running businesses here in the community has risen. More and more people have been calling in to inquire about available services at the business center. The impact has been a change in the mentality in Kake-now people are more optimistic about the feasibility of running their own businesses.”
Bob Mills, Project Director
Four Bands Community Fund, Inc.
“One of the most important successes of this program is that it supports both Elders and youth, some of the most financially vulnerable people on the Reservation. It’s difficult for youth to save for their futures and difficult for elders to continue supporting their families. Our programs have really made a big difference in changing that.”
Asset Development Coordinator
Spruce Island Development Corporation
“People are thinking about entrepreneurship more-a seed has been planted and will continue to grow. We anticipate that the island economy will be stimulated in the future by the activities conducted during this project.”
Sharon Anderson, Project Director
American Samoa Government Department of Parks and Recreation
“The park is good for my business and good for the village, too. In the evening after school, it gets really crowded with kids. Even the older kids, including high school and college kids, hang out there.”
Susan Taifane, Convenience Store Owner
Taala Fund: Quinault Asset Building Project
The Taala Fund, a Community Developed Financial Institution located in the rural southwest corner of the Olympic Peninsula of western Washington, implemented a Native Asset Building Initiative project to serve the Quinault Indian Nation. The project increased the capacity to effectively use assets through financial skill building, Individual Development Accounts (IDAs), and micro and small business loan services.
- 66 micro-business IDA accounts opened
- 39 new businesses created using the IDA program
- 11 new positions added to existing businesses
- 16 students enrolled in IDAs to continue education
- 5 students transferred to 4-year institutions after earning AA degrees, and 105 total customers served